The progressive professionalisation of the content creator

In April 2005, three former PayPal employees created YouTube, the first internet TV channel with content provided by amateurs. It opened with the now famous ‘Me at the Zoo’ video, showing one of the founders in front of elephants at San Diego Zoo, briefly commenting on the length of their trunks.

Twenty years later, 51 million YouTube channels are reaching 2.5 billion users each month. The figure is impressive yet the channels are highly diverse and most of the small channels are barely active: 27 per cent have five subscribers or fewer.¹ Nevertheless, 95 per cent of the global internet population are watching YouTube channels, available in 88 countries and 80 languages.²

With its motto ‘broadcast yourself’, the company was clearly focusing on the user as producer³ –  consumers entertaining consumers. New ‘infomediaries’ have often been labelled ‘new influencers’; however, over the last few years, this word tends to designate specific social media activities in which advice is given on a product or service, but influencers don’t create a specific piece of video content, as YouTubers do. They also differ from celebrity channels such as Cristiano Ronaldo or Taylor Swift. This article aims to clarify the differences, focusing though on channels created by an identified player and not on the numerous YouTube channels that offer streaming video (such as T-Series or Vevo).

The end of amateurism – YouTubers reach fame

In November 2006, YouTube was acquired by the still young Google for $1.65 billion, an impressive amount for a fairly recent firm with a vague business model. The acquisition was met with a lot of scepticism, but some – among them Dailymotion in Europe and Pandora TV in South Korea – perceived an opportunity.

The widespread availability of very high-speed mobile networks, combined with increasingly affordable data plans, has significantly expanded mobile usage and strengthened user agency. Following the introduction and rapid diffusion of smartphones – most notably after the launch of the iPhone in 2007 – the major emerging platforms and social networks (including Facebook, Instagram and Snapchat) enabled users to create, share and distribute video content at scale. The rollout of 4G from 2015 further accelerated this shift by supporting high-quality video streaming and video calling. By 2025, an estimated 63 per cent of all time spent on YouTube occurred on mobile devices.

YouTube’s projected revenue for 2024 was approximately US$39 billion, of which US$36.1 billion derived from advertising, with the platform retaining 45 per cent of advertising income.⁴ Under its YouTube partner programme – launched in 2007 – creators receive between US$0.01 and US$0.03 per view, although eligibility requires a minimum of 1,000 subscribers and at least 4,000 hours of watch time over the preceding 12 months. A video generating 100,000 views can therefore yield between US$250 and US$1,000 after YouTube’s deductions.⁵

The situation is highly unequal; few are able to make a living from their activity. In France, 26 per cent of influencers earned nothing

Beyond advertising, creators may supplement their earnings through sponsorship arrangements, merchandise sales or partnerships with specialised influencer-marketing agencies, such as Vireo Video, (Canada) The Shelf (US) and Webedia (France). Income levels vary widely by audience size and content category, with certain niches – such as finance – commanding higher returns than others. On average, YouTubers earn about US$62,000 per year.⁶

As a first step towards creating a business model, subscription was introduced in October 2005. Subscribers could upload videos, rate them, share them, build video playlists and comment as well as subscribe to other users’ channels. Subscriptions did not require payment but were used to provide Google with an audience tracking tool when advertising was introduced in 2007.

Who are YouTubers?

As early as 2006, YouTube published a list of the channels with the most subscribers. That year Smosh, an American comedy group, held the top spot with nearly 3,000 subscribers.⁷ By January 2013, Smosh, still in the lead, had over 18 million subscribers. However, in that same year, it would be surpassed by video game commentator PewDiePie, who would later be overtaken by MrBeast. Regardless of the estimates and the imprecision of estimation methods, these audiences remain impressive compared to traditional channels, whether terrestrial or cable.

Table 1: Top YouTubers, 2025.⁸ Sources: Social Blade⁹, Forbes¹⁰and Global Media Insight¹¹

Globally, most users are between 25 and 34 years old; 54.4 per cent are men and 45.6 per cent are women.¹² India is home to YouTube’s largest audience by country.¹³ Entertainment (including gaming), music and education are the main genres. On average, a video is viewed 5,600 times, with entertainment videos approaching 10,000 views.¹⁴

Between YouTubers and influencers lies an intermediate category of YouTubers: volunteer commentators. They are pioneering forms of criticism, for example in publishing (booktubers, bookstagrammers, etc.), which rely less on expertise and independence than on peer-to-peer advice and the desire to share their tastes and choices, often in a humorous style. Examples include PewDiePie and Squeezie (in France). They also develop a specific vocabulary or expressions such as ‘daam’ by French YouTuber Tibo InShape.¹⁵

The marketisation of the influencer

In the influencer model, the promotion of products for compensation, with or without an exclusive contract, plays an important part. The European Council in its definition of influencers stresses this commercial role.¹⁶ Article 1 of the French Influence Law of 2023, which is intended to regulate this activity, does the same.¹⁷ This is the first major difference with YouTubers. Not all of them have this commercial focus and most started by offering their ‘expertise’ for free among peers. However, the rise of their influence has made them attractive as a marketing tool.

This in turn has led to the rise of new players: agencies that offer services to influencers and brands. It is a complex ecosystem, served by nearly 7,000 companies.¹⁸ Agencies such as HypeAuditor or Reech (in France), identify the influencers best suited to represent a particular brand, to which they offer management tools and audience analysis. In addition to these contracts with brands, influencers’ income results from revenue sharing (based on the number of views) established by the distribution platform, and from additional revenue from merchandising and online donations collected during live-streaming sessions.

The global market is expected to reach $32.5 billion in 2025. Influencer Marketing Hub counted 24,183,420 million influencers on Instagram in 2025 , 73.9 per cent of whom have between 1,000 and 10,000 followers. For these ‘nano-influencers’ the use of a third party is all but essential.

Table 2: Distribution of Instagram influencers worldwide, 2024. Source: Influencer Marketing Hub, 2025¹⁹

Table 3: Distribution of influencers by category, 2025. Source: compiled by author based on heepsy.com²¹ and Influencer Marketing Hub²²

Instagram is the leading platform for this type of marketing, according to eMarketer. The main platforms differ by category and age group. Instagram is primarily used for images (image posts or carousel posts), particularly in the lifestyle category. Twitch is most suitable for streaming and gaming; TikTok is for short format videos and Twitter (now called X) is used for concise aphorisms. Content is primarily aimed at Generation Z, a group which tends to be less receptive to traditional forms of advertising: Snapchat is used by 81 per cent of 18-  to 24-year-olds, and TikTok by 78 per cent. Twitter and Instagram are perceived as targeting slightly older demographics.

TikTok and Instagram Reels dominate the short videos format. In 2025 live-streaming accounted for 52.4 per cent of activity, short videos for 38.1 per cent and user-generated content for 9.5 per cent.²³

Influencers’ appeal varies significantly by age and gender, declining with age and apparently more attractive for women than for men: more than three in ten women aged 16 to 24 say they follow influencers and other experts on social platforms.²⁴ It also varies by geography. Influencer accounts are very popular in the Philippines and Brazil; by contrast Russians appear to be largely uninterested in influencers.

Who are influencers?

While channels and YouTubers are well documented, influencers are more difficult to track. However, in its annual report for 2025, Influencer Marketing Hub indicates two phases of growth: the first with a global market scaling from $1.4 billion in 2014 to $6.5 billion in 2019, followed by another phase of growth intensified by COVID. Another chronological marker is provided by the creation of the World Influencers and Bloggers Association in 2018.

Table 4: Top influencers (2025). Compiled by the author from a range of sources²⁵

Another difference with YouTubers is that influencers place more emphasis on emotion, hedonism, immersion and proximity to the user. More than YouTubers, they present themselves as role models for their audience. They cultivate this proximity with their users to increase their involvement. Nano-influencers seem to have more engaged audiences who perceive them as close and credit them with specific skills.

Table 4 reveals impressive incomes – for the top of the list – but the situation is highly unequal; few are able to make a living from their activity. In France, 26 per cent of influencers earned nothing. The median annual income was 1,600 euros and the real average income was less than 10,000 euros.²⁶

From dream job to the dark side of influencers

In one study, over 50 per cent of the Gen Z cohort claimed to want to become influencers.²⁷ But there remains considerable regulatory uncertainty. In Europe only two countries, France and Spain, have so far passed laws specifically tackling issues associated with influencers. The absence of laws does not mean that influencers remain outside the legal framework.²⁸ They are subject to various rules from laws in fields such as media law and consumer protection, although these frameworks could be difficult to implement.

In the case of YouTubers, a significant regulatory asymmetry was noted compared to traditional media, particularly in terms of their liability.²⁹ PewDiePie was accused of racism and, according to some research, influencers convey a stereotypical view of women and men.³⁰

The press has widely reported on the offences committed by some influencers, often stemming from a lack of transparency and the (intentional) confusion between advertising and information. In France the term ‘influvoleur’ (‘influthief’) has been coined.

According to ARPP, the French self-regulatory advertising organisation , in 2023, only 64 per cent of sponsored content was clearly marked as such.³¹ A recent study by the University of Portsmouth reviews the negative impacts of influencers, highlighting issues such as ‘misinformation, endorsement of dangerous products, unrealistic beauty standards, the fostering of a comparison culture, deceptive consumption and privacy risks’.³²

Against this backdrop, some players are seeking to distinguish themselves and claim the status of ‘content creators’. YouTube has intervened to support this demand for status³³  – a demand that seems to be bearing fruit. Thus, in France, the National Centre for Cinema  introduced, in 2017, a fund to support online video creators (CNC Talent), dedicated to projects of original French expression for first free broadcast on the internet. The European Council has approved conclusions to support influencers as online content creators.³⁴ This represents a recognition of a new form of content creation.

However, the Council urges ‘both the Commission and member states to develop policies and instruments to foster responsible behaviour on the part of influencers’. Other regions are addressing the regulation of influencers, often through guidelines. In China, the Cybersecurity Law imposes severe restrictions on online content, with significant penalties for violations. In India, recent legislation requires social media platforms to monitor and regulate content posted by influencers. In Japan, a code of ethics for influencers imposes clear rules on the disclosure of business relationships. Creators must also adhere to high standards of online conduct in South Korea, where consumer protection laws require greater transparency regarding sponsored content. Taiwan adopted some of the most stringent influencer regulations in Asia.³⁵

In conclusion, content producers have often moved from amateur content to ‘content worthy of major networks’.³⁶ They have proven adept at leveraging their impact to transition from entertainment producers to entrepreneurs. If YouTubers are being integrated into the audiovisual world, influencers are a major tool within the social media marketing ecosystem.

Finally, while the economic importance of these activities has continued to grow, the spectre of AI and the ‘virtual influencer’ looms large. The Influencer Marketing Benchmark Report highlighted that ’73 per cent of marketers believe influencer marketing can be largely automated by AI’.³⁷